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Provides urban mobility and transport planning framework with ITE trip generation rates, mode splits, network connectivity, transit/cycling/pedestrian design, freight strategy, parking, and traffic assessment.
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This skill provides a comprehensive transport and mobility planning framework
This skill provides a comprehensive transport and mobility planning framework for urban design at the neighborhood, district, and city scales. It draws on ITE Trip Generation (11th Edition), TfL transport assessment guidance, ITDP standards, NACTO transit street guidance, Dutch cycling infrastructure design manuals (CROW), and global best practices from cities achieving high non-car mode shares.
The goal is to ensure every urban design proposal includes a robust, multimodal transport strategy that prioritizes walking, cycling, and transit over private car use, while handling freight and servicing efficiently.
Use the following rates for preliminary transport demand estimation. Rates are per unit (dwelling, 100m2 GFA, room, seat) and represent daily person-trips (all modes). Apply mode split factors (Section 2) to convert to vehicle trips.
Residential
| Type | Unit | Daily Person-Trips | AM Peak | PM Peak |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Detached house | per dwelling | 9.4 | 0.74 | 1.00 |
| Townhouse / row house | per dwelling | 7.2 | 0.56 | 0.76 |
| Low-rise apartment (1-3 floors) | per dwelling | 6.6 | 0.51 | 0.62 |
| Mid-rise apartment (4-10 floors) | per dwelling | 5.4 | 0.36 | 0.44 |
| High-rise apartment (11+ floors) | per dwelling | 4.2 | 0.30 | 0.36 |
| Student housing | per bed | 3.6 | 0.28 | 0.32 |
| Senior housing | per unit | 3.0 | 0.20 | 0.24 |
Commercial / Office
| Type | Unit | Daily Person-Trips | AM Peak | PM Peak |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| General office | per 100m2 GFA | 11.0 | 1.56 | 1.49 |
| Medical office | per 100m2 GFA | 36.1 | 2.78 | 3.46 |
| Business park | per 100m2 GFA | 12.4 | 1.73 | 1.74 |
| Co-working / flexible | per 100m2 GFA | 14.0 | 1.90 | 1.80 |
Retail
| Type | Unit | Daily Person-Trips | AM Peak | PM Peak |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Neighborhood retail | per 100m2 GFA | 42.7 | 1.03 | 3.75 |
| Shopping center | per 100m2 GFA | 37.8 | 0.96 | 3.41 |
| Supermarket | per 100m2 GFA | 102.2 | 3.40 | 9.48 |
| Convenience store | per 100m2 GFA | 737.0 | 33.6 | 52.4 |
| Restaurant / F&B | per 100m2 GFA | 89.9 | 0.73 | 7.49 |
Civic / Institutional
| Type | Unit | Daily Person-Trips | AM Peak | PM Peak |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Primary school | per student | 1.5 | 0.80 | 0.28 |
| Secondary school | per student | 1.7 | 0.75 | 0.28 |
| University | per student | 2.4 | 0.56 | 0.17 |
| Hospital | per bed | 11.2 | 1.07 | 0.93 |
| Community center | per 100m2 GFA | 33.3 | 0.73 | 3.22 |
| Place of worship | per seat | 0.6 | 0.01 | 0.04 |
| Library | per 100m2 GFA | 54.0 | 1.25 | 4.90 |
Hospitality
| Type | Unit | Daily Person-Trips | AM Peak | PM Peak |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hotel (business) | per room | 8.2 | 0.60 | 0.59 |
| Hotel (resort) | per room | 5.6 | 0.32 | 0.41 |
| Serviced apartment | per unit | 4.8 | 0.34 | 0.40 |
For a mixed-use district, total daily person-trips:
Total Person-Trips = Sum of (units x trip rate) for each use
Then apply internal capture reduction:
- Mixed-use districts with vertical/horizontal mix: 10-25% internal capture
- Single-use zones: 0-5% internal capture
- TOD areas: additional 5-15% reduction for transit proximity
Adjusted Person-Trips = Total x (1 - internal_capture) x (1 - transit_reduction)
Peak hours determine intersection capacity requirements:
AM Peak Vehicle Trips = Adjusted Person-Trips x AM_peak_factor x car_mode_share
PM Peak Vehicle Trips = Adjusted Person-Trips x PM_peak_factor x car_mode_share
Where:
AM_peak_factor = AM Peak Trip Rate / Daily Trip Rate (typically 0.08-0.12)
PM_peak_factor = PM Peak Trip Rate / Daily Trip Rate (typically 0.09-0.14)
Mode split targets depend on urban context, transit provision, and design quality. Use the following as starting targets, then adjust based on transit investment and design interventions.
| Context | Walk | Cycle | Transit | Car | Freight |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| CBD / Urban Core | 25-35% | 5-15% | 35-45% | 10-25% | 2-5% |
| Inner Urban (TOD) | 20-30% | 10-20% | 25-35% | 20-35% | 3-5% |
| Urban Neighborhood | 15-25% | 8-15% | 15-25% | 35-50% | 3-5% |
| Suburban Center | 10-15% | 5-10% | 10-20% | 55-70% | 3-5% |
| Suburban Residential | 5-10% | 3-8% | 5-15% | 65-80% | 2-4% |
| Campus / Innovation | 20-30% | 15-25% | 15-25% | 25-40% | 2-4% |
| Rural / Village | 15-25% | 5-10% | 2-8% | 55-75% | 5-8% |
Each intervention shifts mode share. Combine levers to reach targets:
| Intervention | Car Trip Reduction | Evidence Base |
|---|---|---|
| High-quality transit (metro/BRT within 400m) | 15-30% | ITDP, TfL |
| Protected cycle network (AAA standard) | 5-15% | CROW, Copenhagen |
| Walkable street network (intersection density > 100/km2) | 5-10% | Space Syntax |
| Reduced parking supply (below 0.5 spaces/unit) | 10-20% | Victoria Transport Policy |
| Car-free / car-lite zone | 20-40% | Vauban, Hammarby |
| Mobility hub (shared mobility + transit) | 5-10% | MaaS Alliance |
| Congestion pricing / road pricing | 10-20% | Stockholm, Singapore |
| Employer TDM programs | 5-15% | US EPA, TfL |
| Mixed-use development (jobs-housing balance) | 5-15% | Smart Growth |
| Bike-share system (dense network) | 2-5% | NACTO |
Daily VKT = Car Person-Trips x Average Trip Length (km) x Vehicle Occupancy Factor
Where:
Average Trip Length:
CBD: 4-8 km
Urban: 6-12 km
Suburban: 10-20 km
Vehicle Occupancy: 1.2-1.5 persons/vehicle (commute), 1.8-2.2 (other)
Annual VKT = Daily VKT x 330 (weekday equivalent days)
VKT per Capita = Annual VKT / Population
VKT Benchmarks:
| Metric | Poor | Adequate | Good | Excellent |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Intersection density (per km2) | < 40 | 40-80 | 80-120 | > 120 |
| Link-node ratio | < 1.2 | 1.2-1.4 | 1.4-1.6 | > 1.6 |
| Connected node ratio | < 0.4 | 0.4-0.6 | 0.6-0.8 | > 0.8 |
| Block perimeter (average) | > 600m | 400-600m | 250-400m | < 250m |
| Route directness (avg detour) | > 1.6x | 1.3-1.6x | 1.1-1.3x | < 1.1x |
| Cul-de-sac percentage | > 30% | 15-30% | 5-15% | < 5% |
| Classification | Lanes/Dir | Capacity (veh/hr/lane) | ADT Range | Signal Spacing |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Expressway | 2-4 | 1,800-2,000 | > 40,000 | Grade-separated |
| Primary arterial | 2-3 | 800-1,000 | 15,000-40,000 | 300-600m |
| Secondary arterial | 1-2 | 700-900 | 8,000-15,000 | 200-400m |
| Collector | 1-2 | 600-800 | 3,000-8,000 | 150-300m |
| Local | 1 | 400-600 | < 3,000 | Uncontrolled |
| Shared / woonerf | 1 (shared) | N/A | < 1,000 | N/A |
Signalized intersection capacity (per approach lane):
Saturation flow = 1,800 veh/hr (ideal)
Effective green ratio = g/C (green time / cycle time)
Capacity per lane = 1,800 x (g/C) x adjustment_factors
Volume-to-Capacity ratio (v/c):
LOS A: v/c <= 0.60 (free flow, delay < 10 sec)
LOS B: v/c 0.60-0.70 (stable, delay 10-20 sec)
LOS C: v/c 0.70-0.80 (stable, delay 20-35 sec)
LOS D: v/c 0.80-0.90 (approaching instability, delay 35-55 sec)
LOS E: v/c 0.90-1.00 (unstable, delay 55-80 sec)
LOS F: v/c > 1.00 (forced flow, delay > 80 sec)
Design target: LOS C or better for all approaches at buildout. Exception: In urban core areas, LOS D may be acceptable if pedestrian, cycling, and transit levels of service are excellent.
| Mode | Capacity (pphpd) | Speed | Headway | Capital Cost | Catchment |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Metro / MRT | 30,000-80,000 | 30-40 km/h | 2-5 min | $100-300M/km | 800m walk |
| Light Rail (LRT) | 10,000-25,000 | 20-30 km/h | 5-10 min | $30-80M/km | 600m walk |
| BRT (full standard) | 10,000-30,000 | 20-28 km/h | 3-8 min | $5-30M/km | 500m walk |
| Tram / streetcar | 5,000-15,000 | 15-25 km/h | 5-10 min | $20-50M/km | 400m walk |
| Standard bus | 2,000-5,000 | 12-20 km/h | 10-20 min | $0.5-2M/km | 400m walk |
| Demand-responsive | 500-2,000 | varies | on-demand | $0.2-1M/km | 200m walk |
Selection decision tree:
Demand > 15,000 pphpd → Metro or full BRT
Demand 5,000-15,000 → LRT, BRT, or high-frequency tram
Demand 2,000-5,000 → Enhanced bus, tram, or BRT-lite
Demand < 2,000 → Standard bus or demand-responsive
pphpd = passengers per hour per direction
| Standard | Target | Source |
|---|---|---|
| % population within 500m of transit stop | > 80% | UN-Habitat |
| % jobs within 500m of transit stop | > 90% | ITDP |
| Maximum walk to nearest stop | 400m (bus), 800m (rail) | TfL, ITDP |
| Service frequency (peak) | < 10 min (urban), < 15 min (suburban) | NACTO |
| Service frequency (off-peak) | < 15 min (urban), < 30 min (suburban) | TfL |
| Service span | 5:00 AM - midnight minimum | TfL |
| Average commercial speed | > 20 km/h for surface transit | ITDP |
| Mode | Urban Core | Urban | Suburban |
|---|---|---|---|
| Metro | 800-1,200m | 1,000-2,000m | 2,000-5,000m |
| LRT | 400-600m | 600-800m | 800-1,500m |
| BRT | 400-600m | 500-800m | 800-1,200m |
| Tram | 250-400m | 300-500m | 400-600m |
| Bus | 200-300m | 300-400m | 400-600m |
Station forecourt sizing:
Wayfinding requirements:
| Type | Width | Traffic Volume | Speed | Separation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cycle superhighway | 4.0-5.0m (bidirectional) | > 2,000/hr | 30 km/h | Fully separated |
| Protected cycle track | 2.0-2.5m (one-way) | 500-2,000/hr | 25 km/h | Physical barrier |
| Buffered bike lane | 1.8-2.0m + 0.5m buffer | 200-500/hr | 20 km/h | Painted + posts |
| Bike lane | 1.5-1.8m | < 200/hr | 20 km/h | Painted |
| Shared lane (sharrow) | Full lane (4.0m min) | N/A | 15 km/h | None |
| Cycle street | 5.0-6.5m | Bikes priority | 30 km/h | Cars as guests |
| Off-road path | 3.0-4.0m (shared) | varies | 20 km/h | Separated from road |
Road speed limit > 50 km/h OR ADT > 10,000 → Protected cycle track (mandatory)
Road speed limit 30-50 km/h AND ADT 4,000-10,000 → Protected track or buffered lane
Road speed limit 30 km/h AND ADT 2,000-4,000 → Buffered lane or bike lane
Road speed limit 30 km/h AND ADT < 2,000 → Bike lane or shared lane
Road speed limit < 30 km/h AND ADT < 500 → Shared lane or cycle street
Off-road corridor → Shared-use path (3.0m+ width)
| Use | Short-Term (visitor) | Long-Term (resident/employee) |
|---|---|---|
| Residential | 0.05 spaces/unit | 1.0-2.0 spaces/unit |
| Office | 1 per 500m2 GFA | 1 per 100-150m2 GFA |
| Retail | 1 per 200m2 GFA | 1 per 500m2 GFA |
| School | 0.1 per student | 0.3-0.5 per student |
| Transit station | 5-10% of daily boardings | N/A |
| Public space | 10-20 per major space | N/A |
Long-term parking must be: covered, secure (enclosed or surveillance), ground-floor or ramp-accessible, within 30m of building entrance.
| Distance | Walk Time (5 km/h) | Application |
|---|---|---|
| 200m | 2.5 min | Maximum to bus stop (elderly/disabled) |
| 400m | 5 min | Standard transit stop catchment |
| 800m | 10 min | Rail station catchment, neighborhood center |
| 1,200m | 15 min | District center, secondary school |
| 1,600m | 20 min | Maximum reasonable walk for daily errands |
| 2,000m | 25 min | Maximum considered "walkable" by most people |
| LOS | Space (m2/ped) | Flow (ped/min/m) | Description |
|---|---|---|---|
| A | > 5.6 | < 16 | Free flow, no conflicts |
| B | 3.7-5.6 | 16-23 | Minor conflicts |
| C | 2.2-3.7 | 23-33 | Restricted, some weaving |
| D | 1.4-2.2 | 33-49 | Severely restricted |
| E | 0.75-1.4 | 49-75 | Capacity, shuffling |
| F | < 0.75 | > 75 | Breakdown, gridlock |
Design targets: LOS C minimum on all sidewalks; LOS B at transit stops and crossings during peak.
| Road Width | Crossing Type | Maximum Wait | Refuge Island |
|---|---|---|---|
| < 6m (1 lane/dir) | Uncontrolled / zebra | 0 sec | Not needed |
| 6-9m (2 lanes) | Zebra with raised table | 0 sec | Recommended |
| 9-12m (2-3 lanes) | Signalized | < 60 sec | Required |
| 12-18m (3-4 lanes) | Signalized with refuge | < 60 sec | Required (2.0m min) |
| > 18m | Staged crossing / 2 signals | < 90 sec total | Required (2.5m min) |
Critical rule: No pedestrian should wait more than 60 seconds at any crossing. No pedestrian should cross more than 2 lanes without a refuge.
| Use | Deliveries/Day per 1000m2 | Peak Hour Factor | Vehicle Type |
|---|---|---|---|
| Residential | 0.3-0.5 | 0.15 (morning) | Van, small truck |
| Office | 0.5-1.0 | 0.20 (morning) | Van |
| Retail | 2.0-4.0 | 0.25 (early AM) | Van, rigid truck |
| Supermarket | 3.0-6.0 | 0.30 (early AM) | Articulated truck |
| Restaurant / F&B | 3.0-5.0 | 0.30 (early AM) | Van, small truck |
| Hotel | 1.0-2.0 | 0.20 (morning) | Van, rigid truck |
| Hospital | 2.0-3.0 | 0.15 | All types |
| Building GFA | Loading Bays Required | Bay Dimensions |
|---|---|---|
| < 2,000m2 | 1 | 3.5m x 8m (van) |
| 2,000-5,000m2 | 1-2 | 3.5m x 12m (rigid truck) |
| 5,000-10,000m2 | 2-3 | 3.5m x 12m + 1 x 3.5m x 16m |
| 10,000-25,000m2 | 3-5 | Mix of rigid and articulated bays |
| > 25,000m2 | 5+ | Dedicated service yard |
Loading bay location rules:
| Solution | Best For | Reduction in Truck Trips |
|---|---|---|
| Urban consolidation center | Districts > 100,000m2 | 30-50% |
| Micro-consolidation hub | Neighborhoods | 15-30% |
| Cargo bike delivery zone | Pedestrian areas, 3km radius | 20-40% (light goods) |
| Off-peak delivery windows | All commercial areas | 20-30% (peak reduction) |
| Shared loading bays | Mixed-use streets | 15-25% (infrastructure) |
| Locker / collection points | Residential, office | 10-20% (failed deliveries) |
| Tier | Location | Catchment | Elements |
|---|---|---|---|
| Tier 1: City Hub | Major transit interchange | 2-5 km | Rail + bus + bike-share + car-share + e-scooter + taxi + EV charging + parcel lockers + real-time info + staffed service point |
| Tier 2: Neighborhood Hub | Local transit stop or town center | 800m-2km | Bus + bike-share + car-share + e-scooter + cycle parking + EV charging + parcel lockers + info kiosk |
| Tier 3: Micro Hub | Residential cluster or workplace | 200-800m | Bike-share + e-scooter + cycle parking + EV charging + parcel locker |
| Element | Tier 1 | Tier 2 | Tier 3 |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cycle parking | 100-500 spaces | 20-100 spaces | 10-30 spaces |
| Bike-share docks | 30-80 | 10-30 | 5-15 |
| Car-share vehicles | 5-20 | 2-8 | 1-3 |
| EV charging points | 10-30 | 4-10 | 2-4 |
| Parcel lockers | 30-100 units | 10-30 units | 5-15 units |
| Footprint | 500-2,000m2 | 100-500m2 | 30-100m2 |
When a transport chapter is needed for a masterplan or development application, follow this workflow:
| Strategy | Target Group | Typical Effectiveness |
|---|---|---|
| Workplace travel plan | Employees | 10-30% car trip reduction |
| Residential travel plan | Residents | 5-15% car trip reduction |
| School travel plan | Students/parents | 10-25% car trip reduction |
| Car-share membership | Residents/employees | 1 car-share replaces 8-13 private cars |
| Bike-to-work scheme | Employees | 5-15% mode shift to cycling |
| Flexible working / WFH | Office employees | 10-20% peak trip reduction |
| Delivery consolidation | Commercial occupiers | 20-40% freight trip reduction |
| Parking pricing / cash-out | Employees | 10-30% car trip reduction |
| Real-time travel info | All users | 3-8% mode shift |
| Gamification / rewards | All users | 2-5% mode shift |
Critical principle: Parking supply is the single most powerful lever for mode split. Reducing parking supply below car ownership rates forces behavior change more effectively than any other intervention.
| Context | Maximum Parking Ratio | Car Ownership Effect |
|---|---|---|
| CBD / transit-rich | 0-0.3 spaces/unit | 0.2-0.4 cars/household |
| Inner urban (good transit) | 0.3-0.7 spaces/unit | 0.5-0.8 cars/household |
| Urban neighborhood | 0.7-1.0 spaces/unit | 0.8-1.2 cars/household |
| Suburban (some transit) | 1.0-1.5 spaces/unit | 1.2-1.8 cars/household |
| Suburban (car-dependent) | 1.5-2.0 spaces/unit | 1.5-2.2 cars/household |
When producing a transport strategy for a masterplan or district plan, compile these metrics:
| Metric | Target | Source |
|---|---|---|
| Mode split (walk) | > 20% | Context-dependent |
| Mode split (cycle) | > 10% | Context-dependent |
| Mode split (transit) | > 25% | Context-dependent |
| Mode split (car) | < 40% | Context-dependent |
| VKT per capita per year | < 8,000 km | Best practice |
| Intersection density | > 100 per km2 | ITDP |
| % population within 400m of transit | > 80% | UN-Habitat |
| Average pedestrian crossing wait | < 45 sec | TfL |
| Parking ratio (residential) | < 0.7 spaces/unit | TOD standard |
| Cycle network density | > 1.5 km per km2 | CROW |
| Loading bays per 10,000m2 commercial | 2-4 | Planning standards |
| EV charging points per 100 parking spaces | > 20 | EU directive |
| Mobility hub coverage (% pop within 800m) | > 70% | MaaS standard |
This skill integrates with:
For complete trip generation tables with additional land use types, peak hour factors, and directional splits:
For detailed transit planning guidance including route design, service planning, fleet sizing, and fare integration:
For cycling network design details including intersection treatments, signal priority, and grade separation:
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